Bulgaria
Trafficking Routes
Bulgaria
is primarily a country of origin for trafficking in women and children.
To a lesser extent, it is also a country of transit and destination.
According to a recent United Nations (UN) report, Bulgaria is one of
the top 10 countries of origin for trafficking for sexual exploitation
in the world.1 Countries of destination or transit for trafficked
women and children from Bulgaria include the Western European countries
of Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands,
Spain, and Switzerland; the Central and Eastern European countries of
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Czech Republic, Kosovo, the former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Poland, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia,
and Ukraine; and other countries such as Cyprus, Lebanon, and Turkey.
Most victims travel from Bulgaria through Macedonia and Greece, or through
Romania or Serbia, to destinations in Hungary and Western Europe.2
Women
from the Czech Republic, Georgia, Latvia, Moldova, Romania, Russia,
and Ukraine have been trafficked to Bulgaria.3
Women from Moldova, Russia, and other former Soviet republics transit
through Bulgaria.4 Internal trafficking also takes place in Bulgaria.
Factors That Contribute to the Trafficking
Infrastructure
Organized
crime plays a key role in trafficking of persons in the Balkan region,
and crime bosses operate with impunity in the region, where elected
leaders are sometimes complicit in their crimes.5
Lack
of economic opportunity makes Bulgarian women and girls vulnerable to
trafficking. Women constitute 65 percent of the long-term unemployed.6
In
the past few years, Bulgaria has become a country of transit and destination
in addition to being one of origin. This shift is caused by the comparatively
better economic situation in Bulgaria, the introduction of new and more
secure travel documents, stricter border controls, better organization
of law enforcement agencies, comparatively low corruption among law
enforcement officials, and information campaigns to raise awareness.7
Despite these improvements in law enforcement, Bulgaria has still been
criticized for its failure in fighting corruption. The European Union
(EU) has repeatedly warned Bulgaria that it must fight corruption and
organized criminal groups.8 Two Interior Ministry officers were found to
be involved in a trafficking ring in 2002. However, from 2002 to 2004,
the Interior Ministry has fired 124 staff members for suspected corruption.9
Forms of Trafficking
Of
foreign women working in the sex industry in the Balkan countries, 90
percent are victims of trafficking, and 10 to 15 percent are under 18
years of age.10 According to a recent report, international
efforts to curb trafficking in Southeastern Europe have led to “no
actual decline” in trade.11 Albania, Bulgaria, Moldova, and Romania are
the primary countries of origin in Southeastern Europe for trafficking
in women and girls for sexual exploitation. Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Kosovo, and Macedonia are the primary transit destinations and entities
for trafficking. To a lesser but increasing degree, women and girls
are trafficked internally within their own countries in the region,12
especially in Bulgaria, Moldova, and Romania.13
An increase in the number of minors trafficked within their home countries
was most notable in Bulgaria and Kosovo.14
Although
the Bulgarian Interior Ministry has claimed that the situation regarding
trafficking is under control, according to nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), trafficking is not decreasing. Information gathered from assisted
victims and through telephone hotlines indicates that trafficking is
still ongoing but organized differently, with different destination
countries.15
Bulgarian
women and girls are mainly trafficked for sexual exploitation. Trafficking
has also occurred for the purpose of childbearing and illicit adoption.
According to a 2004 report, 15,000 Bulgarian women have been trafficked
abroad since 1992.16 Judging from the number of Bulgarian women and
girls assisted in the Balkan countries and the number of trafficking
victims from Bulgaria who receive assistance after returning to Bulgaria,
trafficking in women and girls from Bulgaria is decreasing. However,
this fact cannot be confirmed. Furthermore, new trafficking patterns
are emerging from Bulgaria: first, trafficking to Bulgaria, and second,
internal trafficking in Bulgaria, especially of children.17
A
2002 report indicated that the majority of persons being trafficked
to the Netherlands originated from Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Romania,
and Russia—the bulk of them from Bulgaria and the Czech Republic.
A quarter of the victims are of Bulgarian nationality. Social workers
and police officers working in the field have confirmed the rise of
victims originating from Bulgaria.18 In 2002, 811 victims of trafficking were recorded
in Germany. The top three countries of origin (in decreasing order)
were Russia, Lithuania, and Bulgaria.19
In
2002, 117 trafficking victims were identified in Bulgaria, according
to police. Of these, 30 percent were Bulgarian nationals who had been
sent back to Bulgaria; the rest were internal victims of trafficking.
Of the victims, 61 percent were minors.20 In 2003, 104 victims of trafficking were assisted,
and all except for 6 were Bulgarian—either victims of trafficking
who were returning from abroad or victims of internal trafficking. Of
the 86 women assisted by the International Organization for Migration
(IOM), 39 were returned from Western Europe and 25 from Macedonia and
Kosovo.21
According
to a recent study, among identified female victims of trafficking in
Bulgaria, all were trafficked for sexual exploitation. At the time of
their identification and referral for assistance, 48 percent were minors.
They are mostly lured by false promises of jobs.22
A significant number of victims come from Bulgaria’s southern mountainous
region bordering Greece, Macedonia, and Turkey, as well as from other
border areas.23
Women
are lured into the industry through false job advertisements offering
jobs as models, dancers, and au pairs. Many of the girls recruited are
orphans or come from disadvantaged families, making them more vulnerable
to the promises of traffickers offering them work abroad.24
Teenage girls are often kidnapped and, among the Roma minority, frequently
sold to traffickers by their families.25
In
June 2004, Paris police busted a racket in which Bulgarian mothers allegedly
sold their babies to childless couples. Police have evidence that at
least 2 and possibly as many as 10 babies born to Bulgarian women in
a Paris hospital were sold in this way.26 In August 2004, French police cracked a baby
trafficking ring in Bobigny, a city on the outskirts of Paris. Investigations
began after a young Bulgarian mother said her baby had been kidnapped.
According to investigators, she had, in fact, sold her baby. By approaching
the police, the woman hoped to take revenge on the baby traffickers,
who had paid her less than promised.27 Also in August 2004, Italian police broke up
a gang taking pregnant Bulgarian women to Italy to give birth and selling
their babies. Traffickers offered pregnant Bulgarian mothers the chance
to give birth in a clean Western European hospital, sell their children
into a supposedly better life, and return home with money. The gang
charged a starting price of €5,000 for a newborn girl and up to €17,000
for a boy, a small part of which went to the mothers.28
In October 2004, a Bulgarian couple was arrested on the island of Crete
for attempting to sell a newborn child to undercover police for €5,000.29
In December 2004, Greek police busted a suspected baby-trafficking ring
on Crete. The mastermind, a Bulgarian woman, ran a ring that brought
Bulgarian women to Crete and sold their babies to childless couples
for €10,000 to €12,000.30
Trafficking
networks may target Bulgarians for their kidneys to use in transplants
for Westerners.31
Government Responses
In
2003, the Bulgarian parliament passed the Law on Countering Trafficking
in Human Beings.32
The
law establishes commissions for combating trafficking in human beings.33
It further provides for the establishment of shelters for temporary
housing of victims of illegal trafficking and of centers for support
and assistance to victims of illegal trafficking. The shelters are to
be established both by the National Commission and by private entities
that have received a special license, and they may provide accommodations
to the victims of trafficking for up to 10 days, with a possible extension
to up to 30 days.34 In addition, if a victim declares his or her
willingness to cooperate in detecting the perpetrators, the term of
his or her stay at the shelter may be extended until the entire criminal
proceedings are over35 The shelters “provide civilized conditions
for stay and personal hygiene; provide food and medications for the
persons sheltered; provide emergency health care and psychological assistance;
support the sheltered persons for contacting their relatives as well
as the relevant agencies and organizations.”36
The centers are to be established by the local commissions for the purposes
of providing “simple language information regarding the procedures
administering victims support and protection, providing specialized
psychological and medical assistance, and supporting the reintegration
of the victim in the family and social environment.”37
The
Law on Countering Trafficking in Human Beings provides for special prevention
measures that specifically target persons from high-risk groups. The
measures involve provision of equal opportunities and access to labor
markets for such persons, awareness-raising campaigns, and special educational
programs that target parents and children, unemployed and illiterate
individuals, high-risk groups and regions of the country, and victims
of trafficking.38
The
Law on Countering Trafficking in Human Beings requires that the government
and the NGOs provide the full range of protection and assistance to
victims of trafficking.39 In particular, it requires that victims be treated
with confidentiality and that their identity be protected.40
The law provides for special protections when a victim of trafficking
is a child. These special protections include informing the State Agency
for Protection of the Children about such cases so that the agency can
provide proper protection and support to the child victims,41
accommodating child victims in separate premises from adult victims
of trafficking,42 providing education in state and municipal schools,43
and assisting the child victims with searching for their family.44
The
Law on Countering Trafficking in Human Beings also requires Bulgarian
diplomatic and consular offices abroad to provide repatriation assistance
to Bulgarian national victims of trafficking,45
including assisting them with “speedy and timely issuing of identity
documents.”46
The
law provides for granting temporary residency permits (under special
protection status) for long-term stay in Bulgaria to foreign victims
of trafficking if they have declared their willingness to cooperate
in detecting the perpetrators.47 However, if a victim does not possess any identity
documents and refuses to cooperate in establishing his or her identity,
the government may not issue the temporary residency permit. Although
the law does not state the period of maximum duration of temporary residency
permits granted to the victims of trafficking, it does state that during
the validity of such permits, victims of trafficking can enjoy almost
the same scope of rights as foreigners residing permanently in Bulgaria.48
The
new law does not contain specific provisions related to criminal sanctions
for trafficking in persons. Rather, it defines the means and purposes
of trafficking and leaves the aspect of penalties to the Criminal Code.
The illegal means include “means of coercion, abduction, deprivation
of liberty, fraud, abuse of power, abuse of a state of dependence, or
by … giving, receiving or promising benefits to obtain the consent
of a person who has control over another person.”49
The general purpose of trafficking is exploitation of a trafficked person,
which is defined as “illegal use of human beings for debauchery, removal
of organs, forced labor, for slavery or servitude.”50
The
Criminal Code of Bulgaria imposes imprisonment for 1 to 8 years and
a fine on any persons who “select, transport, hide, or receive individuals
or groups of persons for the purpose of using them for acts of debauchery,
compulsory labor, removing their organs, or keeping them in forceful
subordination, irrespective of their consent.”51
Punishment is enhanced to imprisonment for 2 to 8 years and a fine under
certain aggravated circumstances, such as trafficking minors; using
force or misleading the victim; abducting or unlawfully depriving the
victim of liberty; taking advantage of the victim’s state of dependency;
misusing authority; or promising, giving, or receiving benefits.52
Anyone who commits the offense described above and takes the victim
across the borders of the country for the purposes of debauchery, compulsory
labor, or removal of organs or keeps the victim in forceful subordination,
irrespective of whether the victim has consented to such treatment,
is subject to punishment of imprisonment from 3 to 8 years and a fine.
If any of the aggravated circumstances described above are involved,
punishment is enhanced to imprisonment for 5 to 10 years and a fine.53
In addition, punishment of imprisonment for 5 to 15 years and a fine
is imposed if the crime is repeatedly committed or is committed as a
part of organized criminal group. In such a case, the punishment may
include confiscation of the offender’s assets that lie within the
discretion of the court.54
The
Criminal Code contains a number of articles that criminalize activities
that could be related to trafficking, such as kidnapping,55
false imprisonment,56 rape,57 inducement to prostitution,58
abduction of a woman for the purposes of sexual exploitation59
or for the purposes of forced marriage,60 and illegally transport of a person across the
border.61
The
Bulgarian Code of Criminal Procedure provides for witness protection
measures if there are “sufficient grounds to believe that due to the
[witness’s] testimony there has arisen or may arise real danger to
the life, health or the property of the witness, his relatives of ascending
or descending line, brothers, sisters, spouse, or persons with whom
he is in very close relationship.”62 Witness protection in such cases may include
keeping the identity of a witness secret, interrogating the witness
in secret, or providing guards to a witness or his or her relatives.63
Victims also have the right to compensation of civil damages if they
file a separate civil complaint with the court of first instance.64
Bulgaria
has enacted the 1998 Law on Measures against Money Laundering. The Bureau
of Financial Intelligence was established to implement the law. In addition,
the Criminal Code prohibits money laundering as a separate offense and
provides for the confiscation of the proceeds of a crime.65
The
Immigration Law prohibits the entry of a foreigner when there is reason
to believe that such a person intends to enter the country to commit
crimes or violate the public order.66 The law imposes a fine on a foreigner who makes
use of an invalid or false travel document.67
The
Criminal Code imposes imprisonment of up to 6 years and a fine on any
official “who requests, or accepts a gift, or any benefit which he
is not due, or accepts an offer, or a promise for a gift or benefit,
in order to perform, or fail to perform, an act within his/her duties,
or because he/she has performed, or failed to perform such an act.”68
On
22 December 1998, Bulgaria ratified the Convention on Combating Bribery
of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions.
Bulgaria has also ratified the European Convention on Mutual Assistance
in Criminal Matters.
On
18 June 2001, the Interior Ministry has established a task force to
combat human trafficking for sexual exploitation. This task force is
intended to address the issue within the Southeast European Cooperative
Initiative (SECI) framework.69
In
2003, the National Action Plan against the Commercial Sexual Exploitation
of Children was adopted.70
The
Council of Ministers of a national commission to fight illegal trafficking
in human beings and of local commissions was established to coordinate
and oversee the actions of the state institutions dealing with trafficking
as mandated by the Law on Countering Trafficking in Human Beings.71
Bulgaria’s
State Agency for Child Protection must be notified whenever an agency
comes into contact with a child victim of trafficking. The agency began
operations in January 2001 and is within the Ministry of Labor and Social
Policy.72 IOM, local NGOs, local health care NGOs, and
a few state shelters provide most of the direct assistance and protection
services to minors trafficked in Bulgaria.73
In
February 2005, the government approved a national program for trafficking
prevention and protection of victims.74
A
total of 30 organized criminal groups involved in human trafficking,
trade in women, and document forgery were broken up in 2002.75
Thirty new criminal groups involved in trafficking in persons were identified
in 2003. Twenty-five of those criminal groups were dismantled; 22 trafficked
in women for sexual exploitation.76 In May 2003, a popular Bulgarian singer was
charged with trafficking Bulgarian women to other European countries,
including Belgium, France, and Italy.77
Nongovernmental and International
Organization Responses
Animus
Association conducts assisted voluntary returns according to informal
cooperation agreements with NGOs in Western and Eastern Europe. It has
signed a formal cooperation agreement with the border police.78
Since 1998, Animus Association has been the Bulgarian counterpart in
the La Strada international program.79 Animus runs the Center for Rehabilitation of
Women Adolescents and Children Victims of Violence.80
The
Nadia Center helps women who have suffered from various forms of violence.
It runs a shelter that houses, among others, victims of trafficking.
It also runs a hotline with information on violence, sex abuse, street
violence, rape, and trafficking.81 The Nadia Center works in cooperation with IOM
in the field of reintegration, providing safe accommodation, psychiatric
counseling, and long-term posttrauma treatment and care as well as case
management.82
Other
active local NGOs in the antitrafficking field are the Neglected Children
Society, SOS Families in Distress in Varna, the Demetra Association
in Burgas, the Open Gate Foundation in Pleven, the Youth Counsel Center
in Blagoevgrad, the National Family Planning Association in Sofia, and
the Triaditca Youth Center in Sofia.83
The
most active NGO in Southeastern Europe in the arenas of preventing trafficking
in persons and assisting and reintegrating trafficking victims is the
La Strada Foundation. It operates as a network of independent NGOs in
Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Macedonia,
Moldova, Poland, and Ukraine.84 In April 2003, Save the Children launched the
European Network against Child Trafficking project, coordinated by Save
the Children Italy in cooperation with Bulgaria, Denmark, Greece, Romania,
Spain, and the United Kingdom. The project will facilitate the exchange
of information, research, documentation, and technical support to combat
child trafficking.85
The
Regional Empowerment Initiative for Women was a 2-year project administered
by the International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX). It promoted
the empowerment of women in selected Eurasian and Southeastern European
countries. The initiative aimed to prevent trafficking of women before
they were lured or smuggled out of their home countries. IREX partnered
with local NGOs in Bulgaria, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Russia, and
Serbia and Montenegro to provide services such as basic job-training
skills, a crisis hotline, awareness raising, and support and training
for female entrepreneurs.86
International
organizations active in the region include the Organization for Security
and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Specifically, the OSCE Office for
Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) is at the forefront
of international efforts to combat and prevent trafficking in persons.
OSCE field missions play a vital role in carrying out antitrafficking
efforts in host countries.87 The Council of Europe and IOM are active in
the arenas of prevention, assistance, and protection.88
UN agencies include the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner
for Human Rights, United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Population
Fund, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations
Development Fund for Women, United Nations Development Programme, United
Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, and United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.89 Other organizations are the International Labor
Organization, International Center for Migration Policy Development,
and Europol.90
Local
NGOs and IOM provide most of the assistance and protection services
for Bulgarian and foreign victims of trafficking. Most service providers
are located in Sofia, although Bulgaria does possess more diversified
groups of service providers than other countries in the region.91
Most identified and assisted voluntary returns from transit or destination
countries are conducted by IOM under the memorandum of understanding
signed in 2001 between the government, SECI, and IOM Sofia.92
IOM Sofia is the principal referral agency that assists Bulgarian victims
of trafficking in returning to Bulgaria and foreign nationals in returning
to their home countries from Bulgaria. The organization supports only
those victims who agree to participate in its return program. In 2003,
IOM Sofia assisted 124 trafficking victims, of whom 3 were foreigners;
the remainder were Bulgarians.93
In
July 2002, IOM opened a shelter for victims of trafficking in Sofia.
The house provides accommodation and medical services for up to 15 repatriated
victims or women awaiting repatriation to their home countries.94
There are five shelters for victims in Bulgaria: three in Sofia, one
in Sliven, and one in Blagoevgrad. Local NGOs manage three; IOM manages
two. All accept minors, Bulgarians, and foreigners.95
IOM
provides assistance for prevention, prosecution, and protection of trafficking
victims. Some of IOM’s more recent projects are a multiagency model
of cooperation for combating trafficking in persons in Bulgaria; a capacity-building
program between Bulgaria and Greece on prevention, protection, and return
and reintegration assistance for victims of trafficking; a secondary
school education program for prevention of trafficking in persons; and
a program offering assisted return and reintegration of unaccompanied
minors and victims of trafficking in Bulgaria.96
Multilateral Initiatives
The
Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe was adopted in June 1999 at the
initiative of the European Union. It includes the EU member states;
countries in the region (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, and Serbia and Montenegro); other
countries (Canada, Japan, Norway, Russia, Switzerland, Turkey, and the
United States); financial institutions; and several international organizations,
such as the OSCE, the Council of Europe, the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
and several UN agencies.97
The
Stability Pact addresses the problem of trafficking in persons through
the Stability Pact Task Force on Human Trafficking (SPTF). SPTF was
established in September 2000 and is “dedicated to promoting collaboration
and integration of anti-trafficking activities in [countries in Southeastern
Europe] to improve their long-term effectiveness and sustainability
in the fight against human trafficking.”98 SPTF focuses on seven areas: awareness raising,
training and exchange programs, law enforcement cooperation, victims’
protection programs, return and reintegration assistance, legislative
reform, and prevention.99 In December 2000, at the first SPTF Regional
Ministerial Meeting in Palermo, Italy, all countries of the region signed
the Palermo Antitrafficking Declaration of Southeastern Europe, thereby
committing themselves to “implement effective programs for prevention,
victims’ assistance and protection, law enforcement, legislative reform,
and prosecution of traffickers.”100 Among its activities, SPTF achieved the adoption
of the Multi-Year Antitrafficking Action Plan for Southeastern Europe;
provided the countries of the region with guidelines for developing
national plans of action; and, in June 2002, initiated a Countertrafficking
Regional Clearing Point, managed by IOM with assistance from International
Catholic Migration Commission and located in Belgrade, to promote improved
victim assistance and protection programs.101
The
SECI Center is the regional center for combating organized crime. The
SECI Illegal Human Beings Trafficking Task Force was established in
May 2000.102 In September 2002, the SECI Center organized
a regional antitrafficking and antismuggling action known as Operation
Mirage. SECI member countries include Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, Serbia
and Montenegro, Turkey, and Ukraine. The main goals of the operation
were to identify trafficking victims and ensure their repatriation,
identify smuggled people, identify involved criminal groups, and conduct
a joint investigation against those groups. The operation raided or
checked 20,558 establishments, interviewed 13,000 women and children,
identified 237 trafficking victims (14 percent of suspected victims),
and assisted 63 victims (4 percent of suspected victims) through IOM
and NGOs.103 For Operation Mirage 2003, law enforcement authorities
identified 696 trafficking victims; detected 831 suspected traffickers;
checked 20,629 places such as border crossings, bars, and nightclubs;
and ran identity checks on 11,170 people. They began criminal procedures
were begun against 499 suspects and arrested 194 of them.104
Operation Mirage 2004 took place in June; 601 people were identified
as trafficking victims, 545 people were identified as traffickers, and
302 people were charged with trafficking.105
In
2002, an international task force was established within the SECI Center
to deal with trafficking in persons. It is composed of specialized officers
from SECI member states.106
In
May 2005, the Council of Europe adopted the Convention on Action against
Trafficking in Human Beings. The Convention goes beyond the United Nations
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially
Women and Children and enhances the capacity of member states to prevent
and combat trafficking in persons and protect the human rights of victims
of trafficking. The 46 member states of the Council of Europe represent
countries of origin, transit, and destination for victims of trafficking.107
1
“UN Maps Human Trafficking,” Associated Press, 14 May 2003.
2
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 63.
3
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 57.
4
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 50.
5
“Balkan Traffic in Women and Girls ‘on Rise,’” Financial
Times, 18 December 2003.
6
Juliette Terzieff, “Bulgarian Trafficking Victims Face Hard Homecoming,”
WeNews, 26 September 2004, http://www.womensenews.org.
7
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: Current Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human Beings
in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, and
Romania (Belgrade: UNICEF, June 2002), http://www.unhchr.ch/women/trafficking.pdf.
8
“EU Critical of Bulgaria’s Record on Fighting Corruption,”
Irish Times, 25 August 2004.
9
“Bulgaria Sacks over 120 Interior Ministry Staff for Corruption in
Two Years,” BBC Monitoring International Reports, 20
January 2004.
10
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 189.
11
“Balkan Traffic in Women and Girls ‘on Rise,’” Financial
Times, 18 December 2003.
12
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 9.
13
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 190.
14
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 15.
15
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe 2004: Focus on Prevention in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova,
Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, the UN Administered Province of Kosovo
(Belgrade: UNICEF, March 2005),
p. 106.
16
Juliette Terzieff, “Bulgarian Trafficking Victims Face Hard Homecoming,”
WeNews, 26 September 2004, http://www.womensenews.org.
17
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 65.
18
Ruth Hopkins and Jan Nijboer, “Country Report: The Netherlands,”
in Research Based on Case Studies of Victims of Trafficking in Human
Beings in 3 EU Member States, i.e., Belgium, Italy, and the Netherlands
(Brussels: Commission of European Communities, 2001).
19
Bundeskriminalamt, Trafficking in Human Beings
(Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 2002).
20
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 59.
21
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe 2004: Focus on Prevention in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova,
Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, the UN Administered Province of Kosovo
(Belgrade: UNICEF, March 2005),
p. 106
22
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 50.
23
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 63.
24
“Bulgarian Police Crack Down on Prostitution, Sexual Exploitation,”
Southeast European Times, 1 January 2002.
25
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: Current Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human Beings
in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, and
Romania (Belgrade: UNICEF, June 2002), http://www.unhchr.ch/women/trafficking.pdf.
26
“French Police Detain Four in Baby-Trafficking Enquiry,” Agence
France Presse, 23 July 2004.
27
“France—Ring Trafficking with Newborns Cracked,” ANSA English
Media Service, 3 August 2004.
28
Sophie Arie, “Italian Police Crack Baby Smuggling Ring,” Guardian
(London), 2 August 2004.
29
“Two Bulgarians Arrested in Crete over Baby Trafficking,” Agence
France Presse, 23 October 2004.
30
“Police Bust Baby-Trafficking Ring,” Athens News Agency,
5 December 2004.
31
Jeremy Laurance, “Crime Syndicates Profit from Poor to Supply Kidneys
for Transplant,” Independent, 30 September 2003.
32
Law No. 46/20.05.1002, which entered into force in January 2004.
33
Chapter II, article 4. The law establishes a national commission for
combating trafficking in human being, which has authority to establish
local commissions for combating trafficking in human beings.
34
Chapter III, article 9.
35
Article 25. In addition, see article 29.
36
Article 10.
37
Article 11.
38
Article 14.
39
Article 15.
40
Article 19.
41
Article 21.
42
Article 22.
43
Article 23.
44
Article 24.
45
Article 16.
46
Article 17.
47
Article 25.
48
Article 28.
49
Transnational Provisions, section 1, para. 1.
50
Transnational Provisions, section 1, para. 2.
51
Article 159a.
52
Article 159a.
53
Article 159b.
54
Article 159c.
55
Article 142.
56
Article 142a.
57
Article 152.
58
Article 155.
59
Article 156.
60
Article 177.
61
Article 280.
62
Article 97a.
63
Article 97a.
64
Articles 60 and 61.
65
Article 253.
66
Article 7(1)(c).
67
Article 34.
68
Article 301.
69
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 55.
70
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe 2004: Focus on Prevention in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova,
Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, the UN Administered Province of Kosovo
(Belgrade: UNICEF, March 2005),
p. 132.
71
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 56.
72
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 70.
73
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 53.
74
“Bulgaria Approves Programme to Tackle Human Trafficking,” BBC
Monitoring International Reports,
17 February 2005.
75
“Bulgarians Report Successes in Fight against Human Trafficking,”
BBC Monitoring International Reports, 11 September 2003.
76
“Bulgarian Interior Ministry Official Views Efforts to Fight Human
Trafficking,” BBC Monitoring International Reports,
15 December 2003.
77
Juliette Terzieff, “Bulgarian Trafficking Victims Face Hard Homecoming,”
WeNews, 26 September 2004, http://www.womensenews.org.
78
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 64.
79
Tanya Mangalakova, “Bulgaria: Trafficking e Reintegrazione,” 8 October
2002, http://www.osservatoriobalcani.org/article/articleview/1331/1/43/.
80
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: Current Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human Beings
in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, and
Romania (Belgrade: UNICEF, June 2002), http://www.unhchr.ch/women/trafficking.pdf.
81
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 62.
82
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: Current Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human Beings
in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, and
Romania (Belgrade: UNICEF, June 2002), http://www.unhchr.ch/women/trafficking.pdf.
83
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: Current Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human Beings
in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, and
Romania (Belgrade: UNICEF, June 2002), http://www.unhchr.ch/women/trafficking.pdf.
84
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 25.
85
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 27.
86
IREX can be found on the Internet at http://www.irex.org.
87
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), pp. 14–15.
88
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), pp. 15–16.
89
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), pp. 17–23.
90
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), pp. 23–25.
91
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 63.
92
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 64.
93
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 59.
94
“IOM Opens Safe House in Sofia,” IOM News,
September 2002. pp. 18–19.
95
First Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South Eastern Europe
(Geneva: Counter-Trafficking Regional Clearing Point, 2003), p. 51.
96
Donor Relations Division, International Organization for Migration,
Migration Initiatives Appeal 2005 (Geneva: International Organization
for Migration, 2005), p. 80, http://www.iom.int/DOCUMENTS/PUBLICATION/EN/Migration_Initiatives_2005_Final.pdf.
97
Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe, “About the Stability Pact,”
February 2005, http://www.stabilitypact.org/about/default.asp. See also
Stop Violence against Women, “Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe:
Task Force on Trafficking in Human Beings, 21 April 2004, http://www.stopvaw.org/Stability_Pact_for_Southeastern_Europe__Task_Force_on_Trafficking_in_Human_Beings.html,
and Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking
in Human Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro,
including the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 10.
98
Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe, “The Task Force on Trafficking
in Human Beings,” December 2004, http://www.stabilitypact.org/trafficking/info.html.
99
Stop Violence against Women, “Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe:
Task Force on Trafficking in Human Beings, 21 April 2004, http://www.stopvaw.org/Stability_Pact_for_Southeastern_Europe__Task_Force_on_Trafficking_in_Human_Beings.html.
100
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 10.
101
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 12.
102
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 14.
103
Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern
Europe: 2003 Update on Situation and Responses to Trafficking in Human
Beings in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, including
the UN Administered Province of Kosovo and Romania
(Belgrade: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 29.
104
David Binder, “12 Nations in Southeast Europe Pursue Traffickers in
Sex Trade,” New York Times, 19 October 2003.
105
“Albanian Police Announce Success in Anti-Trafficking Operation,”
Dita, 12 July 2004. See also Greek Ministry of Public Order, “International
Cooperation,” June 2005, http://www.ydt.gr/main/Article.jsp?ArticleID=22230&LanguageID=2.
106
“Fighting against Trafficking in Human Beings in Romania,” PC.DEL/643/02,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Council of Europe and Human Rights Department,
Bucharest, 2 September 2002.
107
Council of Europe, Council of Europe Convention on Action against
Trafficking in Human Beings and its Explanatory Report, Warsaw,
16 May 2005, http://www.coe.int/T/E/Human_Rights/Equality/PDF_Conv_197_Trafficking_E.pdf.